Perspectives

Edward Tolman (1886-1959) and B. F. Skinner are two important neobehaviorists. Discovering how conditioned history and experiences in life shapes an individual is the understanding of human action. According to Goodview (2008, p. 363), “Neobehaviorists took for granted the evolutionary assumption of continuity among species,” believing the laws of behavior are the same for every species. However, learning in the environment is central to the characteristic types of behavior. If what humans learn through the environment is the result of a specific environment, behavior can be shaped into certain directions to improve behavior. Behavior should be the study of psychology, not mental life. However, mental life and behavior are often intertwined. Exploring the lives of Watson, Skinner, and Tolman, individuals can begin to understand the inner-workings of the human mind and behavior. Perception as well as learned behaviors interacts within the environment to create variables that can be useful for a specific purpose. Determining those perceptions, behaviors, and goals typically occur during therapy.

Watson

Watson’s behavioral theory was the starting point of the revolution in psychology known as the behaviorists. Advocating toward behaviorism, Watson discovered the school of behaviorism, which is still widely used in many therapeutic settings. Behaviorism is a learning perspective based on how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. Watson’s behavioristic theory is also known as classical conditioning. “In 1924 Watson proposed that ‘behavioristic psychology has as its goal to be able, given the stimulus, to predict the response- or, seeing the reaction take place to state what the stimulus is that has called out the reaction’” (Iversen, 1992, p. 18). However, when discussing observable behavior unobservable behavior or events contribute to the observable behavior, leading to subjective introspections. Observable behavior and subjective introspections are closely related, especially with theories and hypothesis.

Watson suggests, according to Bouton (2009, p. 182), “thoughts can be difficult to measure or observe but any speculation about the mechanisms must have testable, falsifiable implications.” As Watson began experimenting “with conditioned motor reflex…measuring directly observable behavior rather than subjective introspections” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 345), he found some responses occur spontaneously without something directly provoking the behavior. When a stimulus precedes the response, the frequency of response was different. Watson claimed behaviorism could “improve the quality of life” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 345). Watson could identify three responses love, rage, and fear; as well as the stimuli, which produced those responses. The body produces a direct response to loud noises, and sudden movements, which elicit a response.

Skinner

Skinner overthrew Watson’s stimulus-response theory. During Skinner’s studies at Harvard “he became intrigued by behaviorism” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 383) as he studied Pavlov and Watson. Skinner called Pavlov’s classical conditioning, Type S – conditioning, which is “formed between two stimuli, one that initially elicits the response and one that doesn’t.” An association is formed between two stimuli with both eventually producing the same response. Arguing Pavlov’s theory, Skinner declared some behavior has no response that can be easily identifiable. “Some behavior is emitted by the organism and is controlled by the immediate consequences of the behavior, not by an eliciting stimulus” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 385). Shifting away from the S-Type conditioning, Skinner leaned more toward Type R – conditioning.

According to Goodwin (2008, p. 385), “A behavior is emitted, followed by some consequence, and the future changes of the behavior occurring are determined by those consequences.” Skinner describes this type of conditioning as operant because “the behavior ‘operates’ on the environment” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 385). Predicting and controlling behavior were Skinner’s two goals in psychology. Skinner withheld reinforcement of behavior and thus demonstrated extinction. Later, Skinner would shift away from the S-R tradition, stating “control your conditions and you will see order’ (Skinner, 1956, p. 223)” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 385). Controlling one’s own conditions, emotions, and behavior can improve the behavior of others. Much of our behavior, including vocal behavior, responds directly to the physical world and produces consequences, which are immediate and direct. Skinner further delved into verbal behavior and how this type of behavior can act and respond to the physical world. The listener responds in ways that have been preconditioned, in the perfect “order to reinforce the behavior of the speaker” (Palmer, 2008, p. 298). How a person speaks to another person, the vocal tone of voice and infliction, is the direct outcome of conditioned responses taught and learned – reacting in the fight or flight response.

Tolman

Tolman enrolled at Harvard in 1911, to study philosophy and psychology. The core of Tolman’s theory is based on behavior that is goal-directed and has a purpose. Tolman’s moral convictions affected his career in 1918 when he was dismissed from his teaching position at Northwestern University. Tolman proposed his comparative psychology at Berkley, which led him to behaviorism. In the early 1920s, Tolman began to develop his form of behaviorism as he studied animal maze learning. According to Goodview (2008, p. 366), “Tolman’s theories emphasized molar over molecular behavior,” the purpose of the behavior, and the variables between the goal-oriented behavior and the goal.

The molecular view consists of behavior resulting in a concrete variation in the strength and probability of the response, response rate, and choice. The molar view consists of the choice and response rate to be concrete with less variation. “Tolman proposed that the changes we observe in studies of animal learning do not directly mirror what the animal has learned in the way stimulus-response theory implied” (Mackintosh, 1986, para. 1). Tolman believed learning could occur, not only with a reinforcer but also without a reinforcer, which Tolman coined latent learning. This type of learning can occur without the knowledge or awareness of it occurring. Tolman believes humans and animals use cognitive strategies to understand behavior.

According to (Sign Learning), “Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: approach learning, avoidance learning, choice-point learning, and latent learning.” Environment and internal variables influence the type of learning; perceptions, expectations, representations, and the type of goal-orientation. Pairing multiple stimuli together can create a new stimulus from the already existing stimulus. Tolman believes learning is goal-directed and purposeful, involving and using environmental factors to achieve the goal while selecting the easiest or most helpful path to achieve the goal.

Modern Psychology

The theories of Watson, Skinner, and Tolman are prominently used in modern psychology. According to the Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders (date), “Behavior modification has been successfully used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), phobias, enuresis (bed-wetting), generalized anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety disorder, among others.” Conditioning and behavior modification are widely used to help clients develop new skills or change problem behavior.

Using Watson’s theory to modify behavior, therapists will often use this with phobias to desensitize the fears, leading to changing the behavior. Loud noises, expressive body language, and sudden movements can cause fear in certain individuals. The more prevalent the behavior is in the environment, the more likely the child will respond in fear out of habit. This also can be true for an individual responding with rage from the same type of environment as a learned behavior. We can begin to recognize that our actions can cause fear, rage, or love in others around us. Changing our behavior to elicit a positive response from others is widely used in individual therapy as a way of understanding ourselves while changing certain behaviors.

The use of positive or negative reinforcement can replace or change certain behaviors. Applying Skinner’s theory of consequence for behavior, parents often use this type of modification to change the behavior of children. Enforcing a consequence, either positive or negative can increase the drive to avoid a particular consequence or receive a reward. The extinction method is commonly useful for children; in a time-out, removing the child from the environment for a set amount of time. Continual reinforcement should be used to assist in altering or changing the behavior from negative to positive. This type of modification is useful in the home, at prisons, schools, and psychiatric hospitals.

Tolman’s theory of behavior further delves into the internal thoughts of certain behavior, a cognitive map. Cognitive therapy is one of the most widely used forms of therapy today. Understanding that “perception is often different from reality” (Cognitive Learning Theory), we can understand that perception is often different for each person. When a person understands his or her past, learning how to change the future begins to take place. Organizing behavior in particular ways to improve the future is how one beings to problem-solve until the goal is reached. Learning how behavior and perceptions are cognitively connected, we can begin making progress toward the future.

References

Advameg, Inc. (2012). Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. Behavior Modification. http://www.minddisorders.com/A-Br/Behavior-modification.html

Baum, W. M. (2002). FROM MOLECULAR TO MOLAR: PARADIGRAM SHIFT IN BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 78(1), 95-116. Retrieved March 3, 2012 from ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

Bouton, M. E. (2009). Behaviorism, thoughts, and actions. British Journal of Psychology, 100(1a), 181.

Cognitive Learning Theory. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~Lynda_abbot/Cognitive.html

Culatta, R. (2012). Learning Theories. Retrieved from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/sign-theory.html

Iversen, I. H. (1992). Skinner’s early research: From reflexology to operant conditioning. American Psychologist, 47(11), 1318-1328. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.47.11.1318

Mackintosh, N. J. (1986). Tolman and modern conditioning theory. British Journal of Psychology, 77(4), 517.

Palmer, D. C. (2008). On Skinner’s Definition of Verbal Behavior. International Journal of Psychology & Psychological Therapy. 8(3), 295-307.